Maritime Commercial Empires and Land Territorial Empires in the Black Sea Region
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31861/mhpi2018.37-38.14-25Abstract
The research I conduct is focused on establishing and describing the major patterns of international interaction in the Black Sea region which have repeatedly occurred throughout history, based on two main criteria: the major players acting in the region (extra-Pontic maritime commercial empires; northern Pontic land territorial empires; southern Pontic land territorial empires) and the relations developed between them (confrontation; cooperation). For achieving this goal of enhancing the historical and geopolitical knowledge of the Black Sea region, a preceding analysis of its geographical position and its key physical features (the ‘board’), of its geoeconomic and geopolitical characteristics (the ‘stake’), as well as of its key strategic points (the ‘trump cards’) is needed. This analysis is carried out in the present paper, while the description of the patterns and the comparison with the current situation and developments in the region shall be tackled in a subsequent paper.
Key words:Black Sea, geopolitics, history, empires, land, maritime
References
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22. Hannestad, L. (2007). Timber as a Trade Resource of the Black Sea. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 85-99.
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25. Hogarth, D.G. (1913). The Balkan Peninsula, The Geographical Journal, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 324-336.
26. Inalcik, H. (1996). Imperiul Otoman. Epoca clasică, 1300-1600, Bucureşti, Ed. Enciclopedică.
27. Jacoby, D. (1989). From Byzantium to Latin Romania: Continuity and Change, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 4, pp. 1-44.
28. Jacoby, D. (1997). Silk crosses the Mediterranean. In: Le vie del Mediterraneo. Idee, uomini, oggetti (secoli XI-XVI), G. Airaldi (ed.), Genoa, ECIG, pp. 55-79.
29. Jaoshvili, S. (2002). The rivers of the Black Sea, The European Environment Agency, Technical Report no. 71.
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31. Korobeinikov, D. (2008). A broken mirror: the Kipçak world in the the thirteenth century. In: The Other Europe in the Middle Ages, F. Curta (ed.), Leiden; Boston, Brill, pp. 379-412.
32. Liuşnea, M.D. (2000). Consideraţii privind limes-ul roman în perioada Principatului, la Dunărea de Jos, Carpica, vol. 29, pp. 71-82.
33. Mackinder, H. (1904). The Geographical Pivot of History, The Geographical Journal, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 421-437.
34. Necula, F. (2012). România va exporta 120.000 de tone de grâu în Egipt, Ziare.com, 27 Sep. 2012, Available at: http://www.ziare.com/economie/agricultura/romania-va-exporta-120-000-de-tone-de-grau-in-egipt-vezi-cati-bani-va-primi-1192528 (Accessed: 5 May 2018).
35. Opaiţ, A. (2007). A Weighty Matter: Pontic Fish Amphorae. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 101-121.
36. Rădulescu, N.A. (1942). Hotarul românesc dunărean, Buletinul Societăţii Regale Române de Geografie, no. 61, pp. 287-291.
37. Reger, G. (2007). Traders and Travelers in the Black and Aegean Seas. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 273-286.
38. Rostovtzeff, M.I. (1922). Iranians and Greeks in South Russia, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
39. Rotaru, A. (2010). Geoenvironmental Issues Concerning the Black Sea Basin, International Journal of Energy and Environment, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 131-138.
40. Sasse, G. (2007). The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition and Conflict, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
41. Spinei, V. (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Leiden; Boston, Brill.
42. Spykman, N.J. (1942). Frontiers, Security, and International Organization, Geographical Review, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 436-447.
43. Spykman, N.J. (1938). Geography and Foreign Policy, II, The American Political Science Review, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 213-236.
44. Suárez de Vivero, J.L. and Rodriguez Mateos, J.C. (2007). Atlas of the European Seas and Oceans, Barcelona, Ediciones del Serbal.
45. Tsetskhladze, G. (1998). Who Built the Thracian and Scythian Royal and Elite Tombs?, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 55-93.
46. US Energy Information Administration (2017). World Oil Transit Chokepoints, Available at: https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/special_topics/World_Oil_Transit_Chokepoints/wotc.pdf (Accessed: 03 May 2018).
47. UN Environment Programme (n.d.). Black Sea Region. Regional Profile, Available at: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/nonunep/blacksea/instruments/r_profile_bs.pdf (Accessed: 20 Dec. 2012).
48. Vachkova, V. (2008). Danube Bulgaria and Khazaria as parts of the Byzantine Oikoumene. In: The Other Europe in the Middle Ages, F. Curta (ed.), Leiden; Boston, Brill, pp. 339-362.
49. Vanderspoel, J. (2010). Provincia Macedonia. In: A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, J. Roisman, I. Worthington (eds.), Oxford, Blackwell, pp. 251-275.
50. Vulpe, A. (2012). Fost-au cimmerienii o populaţie nomadă? O discuţie pe marginea unei cărţi recent apărute. In: Armele Atenei. In honorem Zoe Petre, V. Nistor, D. Zaharia (eds.), Bucureşti, Tritonic, 2012.
2. Avram, A. (2007). Some Thoughts about the Black Sea and the Slave Trade before the Roman Domination (6th-1st Centuries BC). In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 239-252.
3. Avram, A., Hind, J. and Tsetskhladze, G. (2004). The Black Sea Area. In: An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, H.M. Hansen, T.H. Nielsen (eds.), Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press, pp. 924-973.
4. Avramea, A. (2002). Land and Sea Communications, Fourth-Fifteenth Centuries. In: The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, vol. I, A. Laiou (ed.), Washington D.C., Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, pp. 56-90.
5. Bădescu, I. and Dungaciu, D. (1995). Sociologia şi geopolitica frontierei, Bucureşti, Floare Albastră.
6. Blancheton, B. and Maveyraud, S. (2009). French Exchange Rate Management in the mid 1920s, Financial History Review, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 183-201.
7. Bobroff, R. (2000). Behind the Balkan Wars. Russian policy toward Bulgaria and the Turkish Straits, 1912-1913, Russian Review, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 83-90.
8. Braudel, F. (1985a). Civilizaţie materială, economie, capitalism. 2. Jocurile schimbului, Bucureşti, Meridiane.
9. Braudel, F. (1985b). Mediterana şi lumea mediteraneană în epoca lui Filip al II-lea, Bucureşti, Meridiane.
10. Brătianu, Gh. (1941-1942). Chestiunea Mării Negre, I. Vernescu (ed.), București, Universitatea din Bucureşti, Facultatea de Filosofie și Litere.
11. Brătianu, Gh. (1999). Marea Neagră de la origini până la cucerirea otomană, Iaşi, Polirom.
12. Croitoru, C. (2002). Aspecte politico-militare ale prezenţei romane la Dunărea de Jos în secolul II p. Chr., Erasmus, vol. 13, 2002
13. Buşe, C., Vianu, A., Zamfir, Z. and Bădescu, Gh. (2010). Relaţii internaţionale în acte şi documente. 1. 1917-1939, Iaşi, TipoMoldova.
14. Davies, B. (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500-1700, New York, Routledge.
15. Fati, S. (2011). România sparge monopolul Rusiei la exportul de grâu în Egipt, Radio Europa Liberă, 05 Aug. 2011, Available at: https://www.europalibera.org/content/article/24287956.html (Accessed: 05 May 2018).
16. Friedman, G. (2010a). The Geopolitics of Turkey: Searching for More, Stratfor, 03 Aug. 2010, Available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/geopolitics-turkey-searching-more (Accessed: 03 May 2018).
17. Friedman, G. (2010b). Geopolitical Journey, Part 4: Moldova, Stratfor, 19 Nov. 2010, Available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/geopolitical-journey-part-4-moldova (Accessed: 03 May 2018).
18. Friedman, G. (2012). The Geopolitics of Russia: Permanent Struggle, Stratfor, 15 Apr. 2012, Available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/geopolitics-russia-permanent-struggle (Accessed: 03 May 2018).
19. Garnett, S.W. (1997). Keystone in the Arch: Ukraine in the Emerging Security Environment of Central and Eastern Europe, Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
20. Gogeanu, P. (1966). Strâmtorile Mării Negre de-a lungul istoriei, Bucureşti, Ed. Politică.
21. Gökay, B. (2006). Soviet Eastern Policy and Turkey, 1920-1941, London; New York, Routledge.
22. Hannestad, L. (2007). Timber as a Trade Resource of the Black Sea. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 85-99.
23. Hill, F. (2012). In Response to Sanctions, Russia Aims to Bar U.S. Adoptions of Russian Children, PBS NewsHour, 27 Dec. 2012, Available at: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/russia-aims-to-bar-u-s-adoptions-of-russian-children (Accessed: 06 May 2018).
24. Hiller, S. (1991). The Mycenians and the Black Sea. In: Thalassa: L’Égée préhistorique et la mer, R. Laffineur, L. Basch (eds.), Liège, Université de Liège, pp. 207-216.
25. Hogarth, D.G. (1913). The Balkan Peninsula, The Geographical Journal, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 324-336.
26. Inalcik, H. (1996). Imperiul Otoman. Epoca clasică, 1300-1600, Bucureşti, Ed. Enciclopedică.
27. Jacoby, D. (1989). From Byzantium to Latin Romania: Continuity and Change, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 4, pp. 1-44.
28. Jacoby, D. (1997). Silk crosses the Mediterranean. In: Le vie del Mediterraneo. Idee, uomini, oggetti (secoli XI-XVI), G. Airaldi (ed.), Genoa, ECIG, pp. 55-79.
29. Jaoshvili, S. (2002). The rivers of the Black Sea, The European Environment Agency, Technical Report no. 71.
30. Kennan, G. (1946). Telegram to George Marshall [“The Long Telegram”], 22 Feb. 1946, Harry S. Truman Administration File, Elsey Papers, Available at: https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/documents/pdf/6-6.pdf (Accessed: 5 May 2018).
31. Korobeinikov, D. (2008). A broken mirror: the Kipçak world in the the thirteenth century. In: The Other Europe in the Middle Ages, F. Curta (ed.), Leiden; Boston, Brill, pp. 379-412.
32. Liuşnea, M.D. (2000). Consideraţii privind limes-ul roman în perioada Principatului, la Dunărea de Jos, Carpica, vol. 29, pp. 71-82.
33. Mackinder, H. (1904). The Geographical Pivot of History, The Geographical Journal, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 421-437.
34. Necula, F. (2012). România va exporta 120.000 de tone de grâu în Egipt, Ziare.com, 27 Sep. 2012, Available at: http://www.ziare.com/economie/agricultura/romania-va-exporta-120-000-de-tone-de-grau-in-egipt-vezi-cati-bani-va-primi-1192528 (Accessed: 5 May 2018).
35. Opaiţ, A. (2007). A Weighty Matter: Pontic Fish Amphorae. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 101-121.
36. Rădulescu, N.A. (1942). Hotarul românesc dunărean, Buletinul Societăţii Regale Române de Geografie, no. 61, pp. 287-291.
37. Reger, G. (2007). Traders and Travelers in the Black and Aegean Seas. In: The Black Sea in Antiquity. Regional and Interregional Economic Exchanges, V. Gabrielsen, J. Lund (eds.), Black Sea Studies 6, Aarhus, Aarhus University Press, pp. 273-286.
38. Rostovtzeff, M.I. (1922). Iranians and Greeks in South Russia, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
39. Rotaru, A. (2010). Geoenvironmental Issues Concerning the Black Sea Basin, International Journal of Energy and Environment, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 131-138.
40. Sasse, G. (2007). The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition and Conflict, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
41. Spinei, V. (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Leiden; Boston, Brill.
42. Spykman, N.J. (1942). Frontiers, Security, and International Organization, Geographical Review, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 436-447.
43. Spykman, N.J. (1938). Geography and Foreign Policy, II, The American Political Science Review, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 213-236.
44. Suárez de Vivero, J.L. and Rodriguez Mateos, J.C. (2007). Atlas of the European Seas and Oceans, Barcelona, Ediciones del Serbal.
45. Tsetskhladze, G. (1998). Who Built the Thracian and Scythian Royal and Elite Tombs?, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 55-93.
46. US Energy Information Administration (2017). World Oil Transit Chokepoints, Available at: https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/special_topics/World_Oil_Transit_Chokepoints/wotc.pdf (Accessed: 03 May 2018).
47. UN Environment Programme (n.d.). Black Sea Region. Regional Profile, Available at: http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/nonunep/blacksea/instruments/r_profile_bs.pdf (Accessed: 20 Dec. 2012).
48. Vachkova, V. (2008). Danube Bulgaria and Khazaria as parts of the Byzantine Oikoumene. In: The Other Europe in the Middle Ages, F. Curta (ed.), Leiden; Boston, Brill, pp. 339-362.
49. Vanderspoel, J. (2010). Provincia Macedonia. In: A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, J. Roisman, I. Worthington (eds.), Oxford, Blackwell, pp. 251-275.
50. Vulpe, A. (2012). Fost-au cimmerienii o populaţie nomadă? O discuţie pe marginea unei cărţi recent apărute. In: Armele Atenei. In honorem Zoe Petre, V. Nistor, D. Zaharia (eds.), Bucureşti, Tritonic, 2012.
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Published
2018-12-12
How to Cite
Iancu, L. M. (2018). Maritime Commercial Empires and Land Territorial Empires in the Black Sea Region. Modern Historical and Political Issues, (37-38), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.31861/mhpi2018.37-38.14-25
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